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Keywords: Biomaterials 32(33), 85488554 (2011), C.H.J. Colloids Surf. These studies do raise concerns about how an appropriate optimization of targeting moieties, conjugation approaches and densities play an essential role in the desired outcomes of the therapeutic nanosystems. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. 91, 251255 (2016), S. Kumar et al., PEG coated and doxorubicin loaded multimodal Gadolinium oxide nanoparticles for simultaneous drug delivery and imaging applications. Would you like email updates of new search results? pH-labile covalent bonds with benzoic-imine bond, 1,3,5-triazaadamantane (TAA) group, the hydrazone bond are developed as a proof of principle systems for pH-mediated response systems [67]. In addition, the challenges in the translation of nanotechnology-based diagnostic methods into clinical applications are discussed. Soc. While a large number of very attractive exploitations open up for the clinics, regulatory agencies are very careful in admitting new nanomaterials for human use because of their potential toxicity. Dendrimers are multi-branched molecules with functional groups on the surface with an inner core. Pharm. Several polymer-based therapeutics are currently in the market or undergoing a clinical evaluation to treat cancer. Chemical affinity for active targeting is based on different specific molecular interactions such as receptorligand-based interactions, charge-based interactions and facilitated motif-based interactions with substrate molecules [41, 42]. These nanoparticles exhibited a significant decrease in cell viability and greater cytotoxicity toward LNCaP cells when compared to free resveratrol. 153, 111120 (2015), W. Shao et al., A new carbon nanotube-based breast cancer drug delivery system: preparation and in vitro analysis using paclitaxel. This accumulation of the drug at the tumor sites is a passive process, and it requires prolonged circulation of the drug for appropriate drug delivery. 12, 14531464 (2017), X. Hua et al., Magnetically triggered drug release from nanoparticles and its applications in anti-tumor treatment. Biomol. Ji et al., Carbon nanotubes in cancer diagnosis and therapy. In the study, three different targeted nanoparticles and one non-targeted nanoparticle were used to study the uptake and distribution of iron oxide nanoparticles in the PANC02 mouse pancreatic cancer cell line. These accumulated nanoparticles were captured and quickly cleared by macrophages resulting in suboptimal tumor cell internalization [47]. Pharm. Advances and Implications in Nanotechnology for Lung Cancer - PubMed J. Liposome Res. Am. Graphene and its derivatives comprise an important class of materials that is widely used in drug and gene delivery, cell imaging, photothermal cancer therapy and biosensing [207,208,209,210]. Zhang et al., designed pH sensitive TPGS-PAE nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, wherein doxorubicin and curcumin were co-loaded by self-assembly. In another report, multi-walled carbon nanotube were decorated with TiO2Au nanocomposite, and the system was observed to be efficient in inducing toxicity to A549 and MCF7 cancer cell lines [200]. Res. J. Pharm. J. Nanomed. 1. Nagesh et al., PSMA targeted docetaxel-loaded superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles for prostate cancer. Since there are a multitude of smaller interactions presented by diverse complex biomolecules based on simple van der Waals interactions, the cumulative effects of these smaller interactions can hinder nanoparticles approach to their target sites. To date, polymeric nanomaterials, metallic nanoparticles, carbon-based materials, liposomes, and dendrimers have been developed as smart drug delivery systems for cancer treatment, demonstrating enhanced pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles over conventional formulations due to their nanoscale size and unique physicochemical characteristics. Mater. These features have led many researchers to load cargos on to mesoporous silica nanomaterials for transporting them to the tumor tissues [218,219,220]. Cancer Res. 2014 Sep 30;76:79-97. doi: 10.1016/j.addr.2014.08.002. Int. In addition to the above discussion, there are tools that are currently available to shield nanomaterials for targeting cancer cells. Current trends and challenges in cancer management and therapy using designer nanomaterials. J. Photochem. mRNA transcriptome profiling of human hepatocellular carcinoma cells HepG2 treated with. Springer Nature. Sci. Navya, H.K. J. Pharm. Cells Nanomed. Control. Oncol. The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Sci. In addition to the size of the nanomaterials, the shape of the nanomaterials is equally important in drug delivery. Pharm. Also, difficulties in the approval will tend to increase due to the development of multifunctional nanoplatforms. Nat. Acad. B Biointerfaces 133, 246253 (2015), A. Kaphle, N.P. J. Chem. Navya, A. Kaphle, H.K. Nanoparticles are classified into several main categories. 2) [32]. by A. Dhawan (CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2018), pp. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! To overcome these drawbacks, a polyamide amine dendrimer conjugated with paclitaxel and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) was developed to enhance the anticancer activity by increasing its efficacy and reducing toxicity. The advent of nanotechnology has revolutionized . and transmitted securely. 2022 Mar 1;2(3):258-281. doi: 10.1021/acsbiomedchemau.2c00003. J. Nanomed. Later, we elaborate upon the design and fabrication of nanomaterials, along with different types of nanomaterials used in cancer therapeutics including liposomes, dendrimers, inorganic nanomaterials and polymeric nanomaterials. C 53, 298309 (2015), M. Ramar et al., Synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Solanum trilobatum fruits extract and its antibacterial, cytotoxic activity against human breast cancer cell line MCF 7. Understanding the complications involved in cancer cell physiology and the tumor microenvironment, along with drug and carrier pharmacokinetics is essential for the development of successful new cancer therapeutics. By exploiting the extended circulation property of PEGylated liposomes and biocompatibility, biodegradability and hydrophilicity of polysialic acid, a negatively charged polysaccharides drug delivery systems developed that has been used to prolong the circulation time of the liposomes, increasing the ability of epirubicin to reach the tumor sites. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Active targeting, therefore, relies extensively on endoplasmic retention effects to reach the targets. Carbohyd. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. Moreover, the studies of Villanueva et al. Sci. Photobiol. Nanotechnology in cancer diagnosis: progress, challenges and Sci. Sensors (Basel). 252(1), 263266 (2003), X. Docetaxel-loaded galactosamine combined with polydopamine-modified nanoparticles synthesized from d-a-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate-poly(lactide) (Gal-pD-TPGS-PLA/NPs) were found to inhibit the growth of HepG2 cells more effectively than TPGS-PLA/NPs, pD-TPGS-PLA/NPs, and a clinically available docetaxel formulation (Taxotere). 10, 51235137 (2015), Z.C. Res. Additionally, a newer generation of liposomes are emerging, focusing on redox sensitive liposomes, magnetic liposomes, enzyme sensitive liposomes and multifunctional smart liposomes [242,243,244,245]. From the above discussion, it can be concluded that nanomaterials for therapeutic applications need to be engineered carefully with respect to their size and shape, because both of them have noteworthy impact on the uptake process of cells, and can potentially induce cellular responses. Colloids Surf. Biomater Res. Yao Y, Zhou Y, Liu L, Xu Y, Chen Q, Wang Y, Wu S, Deng Y, Zhang J, Shao A. Control. Chupin, V.P. Release 174, 98108 (2014), S. Lakkadwala, J. Singh, Dual functionalized 5-fluorouracil liposomes as highly efficient nanomedicine for glioblastoma treatment as assessed in an in vitro brain tumor model. Temozolomide-FaPEC@siRNA exhibited higher cytotoxicity than both temozolomide-FaPEC and temozolomide-PEC, whereas C6 cells incubated with FaPEC@SCR and PEC@SCR exhibited viabilities over 90% even at a very high 100g/mL polymer concentration, indicating low cytotoxicity of carrier, a vital characteristic for in vivo application. Int J Pharm. Classification of NP synthesis a top-down and b bottom-up approaches, Pictorial representation of active cellular, Pictorial representation of active cellular targeting, Various types of nanomaterials used in cancer therapy, Diagrammatic representation of NPs in cryosurgery, MeSH Nanotechnology in cancer diagnosis: progress, challenges and opportunities In the fight against cancer, early detection is a key factor for successful treatment. In another study, Zhou et al. Additionally, the size and shape of the nanomaterials impact the drug loading and release, along with the stability [102]. Funct. Colloids Surf. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Current chemotherapy faces problems such as lack of specificity, cytotoxicity, induction of multi-drug resistance and stem-like cells growth. 7a. Linear type of FC131 (LFC131) ligand conjugated, doxorubicin encapsulated polyamide amine dendrimer was developed using polyamide amine dendrimer generation 4.0 (D4). 65(1), 7179 (2013), R.K. Jain, T. Stylianopoulos, Delivering nanomedicine to solid tumors. Int. Med. 106(27), 10912 (2009), J. Shi et al., Nanotechnology in drug delivery and tissue engineering: from discovery to applications. 13(8), 24952505 (2017), Q. Liu et al., Facile synthesis by a covalent binding reaction for pH-responsive drug release of carboxylated chitosan coated hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles. Due to the lack of understanding of toxicity and in vivo behaviour of nanoformulations, clinical trials are experiencing major setbacks. J. Several studies have revealed the detrimental properties of nanocarriers due to their toxicity [290, 291]. The surface charge of the nanoparticles is one of the leading factors to direct the interaction at the nano-bio interface [23]. Moreover, due to the poor lymphatic function, the nanoparticles are not rapidly cleared and accumulate in the tumor interstitium [30]. The biodistribution profile is also strongly influenced by active clearance processes posed by various immune cells, and blood flow/renal filtration rate. Am. Nanotechnol. This review summarizes the latest developments in nanotechnology applications for cancer diagnosis. Nevertheless, it is essential to choose the right type of ligand for improvedand efficient targeting of the tumor cells. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. Int. Moreover, they have gained commercial importance because of their tunable drug release kinetics. Thus, nanodiagnostics, defined as the use of nanotechnology . Macromol. Brown et al., Gold nanoparticles for the improved anticancer drug delivery of the active component of oxaliplatin. Sci. 334(2), 196201 (2013), K. Saha et al., Gold nanoparticles in chemical and biological sensing. Environ. This complexity allows a prompt reaction to the high concentration of stimuli, but not to low concentrations, achieving controlled specificity [65]. Rompicharla et al., Octa-arginine modified poly(amidoamine) dendrimers for improved delivery and cytotoxic effect of paclitaxel in cancer. Photobiol. B Biol. Int. The primary requirements in precisely engineering these nanomaterials as drug-delivery platforms for sustained release based on their size, shape, composition, surface charge, and biocompatibility, as illustrated in Fig. ACS Appl. Polymeric nanoparticles serve as a versatile platform to deliver drugs due to their different chemical composition, charge and physical structure. Chem. Nanomaterials for cancer therapy: current progress and perspectives Acta Biomater. J. The pH responsive release of the drug is widely employed, since the tumor microenvironment will be slightly more acidic than the normal tissues. The combination of chemotherapy with photothermal therapy has proved to be efficient when magnetic graphene oxide modified with PEG and cetuximab was used against CT-26 murine colorectal cells [214]. 7, 235242 (2012), CAS Patil et al., Single-step surface functionalization of polymeric nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery. Nano Lett. ACS Nano 6(5), 44834493 (2012), F. Lu et al., Size effect on cell uptake in well-suspended, uniform mesoporous silica nanoparticles. The accumulation of the nanocarriers is essentiallydepends on physicochemical properties such as size, shape (morphology), surface charge and surface chemistry [32]. Sci. Mater. Biochem. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. We further elaborate on the topical progress made to date toward nanomaterial engineering for cancer therapy, including current strategies for drug targeting and release for efficient cancer administration. See this image and copyright information in PMC. Tailor-made nanomaterials functionalized with specific ligands can target cancer cells in a predictable manner and deliver encapsulated payloads effectively. Google Scholar, J.D. Commun. From the above discussion, it is evident that dendrimers are nanoplatforms which can be tuned for therapeutic applications, and show great promise in the treatment of various cancers. Nat. 12(8), 28112822 (2015), I.M. However, more in-depth studies are required to understand the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of these systems before clinical translation of mesoporous silica-based nanomaterials. Nano-based modalities provide enhanced transport across biological barriers, enable selective targeting ofmalignanttissues/cells, and offer strategies for sustained release of a drug [21, 22]. Nanotechnology has recently sparked an interest in a variety of areas, including medicine, chemistry, physics, and biology. These nanoparticles can be synthesized using synthetic and natural polymers, and have been extensively used in drug delivery applications [265, 266]. Werner et al., Folate-targeted nanoparticle delivery of chemo- and radiotherapeutics for the treatment of ovarian cancer peritoneal metastasis. Jia Y, Jiang Y, He Y, Zhang W, Zou J, Magar KT, Boucetta H, Teng C, He W. Pharmaceutics. The in vitro magnetic resonance imaging confirmed the enhanced binding and accumulation of iron oxide nanoparticles in PC-3 cells, when compared with normal prostate epithelial cells. Natl. Proc. Normally, given the complexity of nanoparticles administration routes and undesirable interactions with non-specific molecules within the organisms, the difference in the nanoparticles affinity towards cancerous and normal cells would not be sufficient for high specificity and efficient delivery to the target site required for wide utility for biomedical applications. Nanoscale 10(18), 85368546 (2018), N. Singh, A. Sachdev, P. Gopinath, Polysaccharide functionalized single walled carbon nanotubes as nanocarriers for delivery of curcumin in lung cancer cells. Redox activated polymeric nanoparticles in tumor therapy (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2017). The first FDA (the Food and Drug Administration, national agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services) approved nano-drug is one consisting of PEGylated liposome entrapped doxorubicin (DOX) targeted against HIV-related Kaposi sarcoma tumor, and ovarian cancer. have demonstrated that the internalization of magnetic nanoparticles inside HeLa cells is dependent on the nanoparticle surface charge and incubation time. The in vitro cytotoxicity studies revealed that doxorubicin formulations had increased antiproliferative effect and was time and dose-dependent as depicted in Fig. Likewise, the in vivo distribution of nanoparticles indicated that highly charged nanoparticles were taken up by liver cells. Shaik, A.S. Shaik, Magnetic single-walled carbon nanotubes as efficient drug delivery nanocarriers in breast cancer murine model: noninvasive monitoring using diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging as sensitive imaging biomarker. Artif. Biol. In a recent study, co-delivery of two chemotherapeutic agents (tamoxifen and imatinib mesylate) using a liposome carrier system was developed to treat breast cancer. Mater. Artif. Cancer Lett. 49(1), 160172 (2014), P.K.B. Daima et al., Fine-tuning the antimicrobial profile of biocompatible gold nanoparticles by sequential surface functionalization using polyoxometalates and lysine. Torchilin, New developments in liposomal drug delivery. Biomacromolecules 15(6), 19551969 (2014), N. Kamaly et al., Targeted polymeric therapeutic nanoparticles: design, development and clinical translation. Another challenge in drug delivery is the safety for human health, as issues may be associated with nanomaterial, and may not have immediate impact or may not be noticeable quickly. 53(46), 1232012364 (2014), J. Yue et al., Gold nanoparticle size and shape effects on cellular uptake and intracellular distribution of siRNA nanoconstructs. Am. This important study signposts the strategy of modifying the surface of liposomes for effective delivery of anticancer drugs to treat hepatocellular carcinoma [235]. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the Naidu et al., Chemotherapy-induced and/or radiation therapy-induced oral mucositis-complicating the treatment of cancer. Artif. 26(6), 876885 (2018), S. Nicolas et al., Polymeric nanocapsules as drug carriers for sustained anticancer activity of calcitriol in breast cancer cells. J. Pharm. Acta Biomater. Acad. C 90, 589601 (2018), N.H. Levi-Polyachenko et al., Rapid photothermal intracellular drug delivery using multiwalled carbon nanotubes. Iacobazzi et al., Targeting human liver cancer cells with lactobionic acid-G(4)-PAMAM-FITC sorafenib loaded dendrimers. Biotechnol. The efficacy of a theranostics for prostate cancer has also been evaluated through in vitro and in vivo studies [141]. Biol. J. Pharm. J. Nanomed. Polymers (Basel). Chem. This phenomenon has been explained based on molecular saturation, improper orientation of ligands, bond constraints, and steric constraints from neighboring molecules on the nanoparticles [56]. The most striking properties of dendrimers such as branches, distinct molecular weight and globular assembly with meticulous surface functionality, and multivalency, can be exploited to be used as carriers for drug delivery [275]. Also, it is apparent that the nanomaterials distribution within the cell is strongly governed by their surface charge, which needs to be engineered to avoid undesirable uptake from the normal cells to achieve target specific action without adverse impact on normal cells. Integr. To develop nanomaterials for specific biomedical applications, surface chemistry design is indispensable. J. Nanomed. 12, 67596769 (2017), N. Karki et al., Functionalized graphene oxides for drug loading, release and delivery of poorly water soluble anticancer drug: a comparative study. Iran. 16(4), 12731304 (2017), Y. Chi et al., Redox-sensitive and hyaluronic acid functionalized liposomes for cytoplasmic drug delivery to osteosarcoma in animal models. J. Nanomed. 131(16), 57285729 (2009), W. Du, O. Elemento, Cancer systems biology: embracing complexity to develop better anticancer therapeutic strategies. Interestingly, there was a significant tumor growth inhibition in the treatment group with doxorubicin-loaded lactoferrin-PLS of HepG2 tumors when compared to only doxorubicin-loaded PLS and free doxorubicin, with no significant change in the body weight observed as shown in Fig. Therefore, in this critical review, we summarize a range of nanomaterials which are currently being employed for anticancer therapies and discuss the fundamental role of their physicochemical properties in cancer management. Nanomed. J. Toxicol. 133(44), 1756017563 (2011), Y.Y. Biomaterials 32(26), 62266233 (2011), L. Vroman, Effect of adsorbed proteins on the wettability of hydrophilic and hydrophobic solids. Biogenic Ag nanoparticles can be employed against prostate and colon cancer. prepared a polymeric micelle by incorporating temozolomide (TMZ) and anti-BCL-2 siRNA based on tri-block copolymer conjugated with folic acid as outlined in Fig. Cancer is a disease with complex pathological process. Spectrosc. Mater. When multiple ligand molecules are accumulated onto the nanosystems, there is an overall increase in the avidity of the nanoparticles for its cognate target [45]. Cancer biomarker; Cancer diagnosis; Nanoparticle. Soc. J. Jeong, S. Jon, A drug-loaded aptamergold nanoparticle bioconjugate for combined CT imaging and therapy of prostate cancer. Chem. Health B 14(8), 593632 (2011), H. Maeda, H. Nakamura, J. Fang, The EPR effect for macromolecular drug delivery to solid tumors: improvement of tumor uptake, lowering of systemic toxicity, and distinct tumor imaging in vivo. Nanoscience 5, 3056 (2019), R.A. Revia, M. Zhang, Magnetite nanoparticles for cancer diagnosis, treatment, and treatment monitoring: recent advances. Over the past 20years, commendable progress has been made in biomedical applications of liposomes improving the therapeutic index of the encapsulated drugs. Thus, the nanomaterials used for targeting tumor cells should have the capability of increasing local concentration of the drugs in and around tumor cells, thereby reducing the potential toxicity toward healthy cells [27]. Pros and Cons of Nanotechnology - HRF Active targeting approach has been exploited to increase internalization of nanoparticles by the target cells and improve the drug delivery efficacy. Release 143(3), 374382 (2010), S.A. Kulkarni, S.-S. Feng, Effects of particle size and surface modification on cellular uptake and biodistribution of polymeric nanoparticles for drug delivery. Mater. Theranostics 7(18), 44244444 (2017), T. Santiago et al., Surface-enhanced Raman scattering investigation of targeted delivery and controlled release of gemcitabine. Biotechnol. J. Nanotechnology could help reduce the invasiveness of some cancer diagnostic procedures. These dendritic systems have been used to deliver anticancer drugs wherein the drugs are encapsulated/conjugated with dendrimers. The ensuing section discusses major physicochemical properties of nanomaterials and their design considerations for therapeutic and diagnostic applications. J. Nanomed. 23(43), 50345038 (2011), J. Gao, S.-S. Feng, Y. Guo, Antibody engineering promotes nanomedicine for cancer treatment. Target substrates can be surface molecules expressed in diseased cells, proteins, sugars or lipids present in the organs, molecules present (or secreted by tumor cells) in the microenvironment of the diseased cells or even the physicochemical environment in the vicinity [46]. 9, 789 (2003), P.N. This alteration could cause nanoparticles to lose their specificity leading to sub-optimal localization in desired sites or at cellular targets. Cancer is one of the leading causes of death and morbidity with a complex pathophysiology. Mater. Rev. Chem. The efficient delivery of nanomaterials to the target tissues can be classified as passive and active targeting, as discussed below. These structures can be produced by using macromolecules such as polyamide amine (PAMAM), polypropyleneimine and poly(aryl ether). ACS Bio Med Chem Au. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. Drug Deliv. 12, 446452 (2018), C. Chen et al., pH-responsive nanoreservoirs based on hyaluronic acid end-capped mesoporous silica nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery. Ag nanoparticles conjugated with phytopharmaceuticals can serve as non-toxic delivery vehicles, contrast agents and photothermal agents for cancer therapy. They have developed gelatin particles, 100nm in diameter, which upon extravasation into tumor tissue reduce in size to 10nm, through degradation by tumor-associated matrix metalloproteinases [39]. Fa, folate; PCL, poly(-caprolactone); PEG, poly(ethylene glycol); PEI, poly(ethylenimine); TMZ, temozolomide. Advantages and disadvantages of Photodynamic Therapy. The cytotoxicity of nanoplatform was eightfold higher than that of the free drug [227]. Int. An understanding of nano-bio interfacial interactions and targeting of nanoparticles to the tumor cells is essential for cancer therapy and management. Significant properties of any nanomaterial used in biomedical delivery are its biocompatibility and biodegradability [228], with the discharged carrier degraded into nontoxic components and cleared through the circulation. Nanotechnology - Types, Applications, Disadvantages, Companies 520(1), 126138 (2017), C.T. Invest. Mater. Tamoxifen and imatinib mesylate were released in controlled manner from the temperature sensitive liposomes prepared using a combination of phospholipids with a transition temperature near to 39C. The cytotoxicity assay demonstrated that resveratrol conjugated poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles had two-fold lower IC50 and IC90 values in comparison to only resveratrol [253]. 8600 Rockville Pike Besides, liposomal co-delivery of chemotherapeutic agents can minimize cancer cell drug resistance and make them more sensitive to individual drugs. 129(27), 84388439 (2007), N.W.S. The ex vivo permeability of these formulations tested on mice dorsal skin and in vivo anticancer activity were evaluated in A431 tumor-bearing mice. J. Pharm. The results revealed that the decrease in bacterial cell conductivity due to cell wall rupture and massive cell death which appears in the. Cells Nanomed. 34, 7000 (2016), V.P. Macromol. Lancet et al., Final results of a phase III randomized trial of CPX-351 versus 7 + 3 in older patients with newly diagnosed high risk (secondary) AML. 527, 141150 (2018), L. Pascual et al., MUC1 aptamer-capped mesoporous silica nanoparticles for controlled drug delivery and radio-imaging applications. B Biointerfaces 170, 718728 (2018), A. Jhaveri et al., Transferrin-targeted, resveratrol-loaded liposomes for the treatment of glioblastoma. Bae, Drug targeting and tumor heterogeneity. Additionally, while it is evident that nanoparticles permeability should normally be at higher rates in hypoxic core of tumor area rather than the periphery, few studies contrast this observation [37]. Nanotechnology holds enormous potential for overcoming many of the problems associated with conventional methods, faces difficulties in the detection, treatment, and diagnosis of cancer . 119, 310321 (2017), K. ztrk et al., Effective targeting of gemcitabine to pancreatic cancer through PEG-cored Flt-1 antibody-conjugated dendrimers. Combination therapy has been demonstrated to be effective and has substantial evidence showing that synergistic effects that are superior to the totality of the therapeutic consequences of the individual drug [238,239,240]. These nanocarriers help overcome the unwanted side effects in normal tissues and increase circulation time, bioavailability, and accumulation of drug at target-site by reducing toxicity and protect the chemotherapeutic agents from the surrounding environment. However, their use is often limited due to the accumulation of metal in the body after drug administration causing toxicity. Ind. Natl. Mater. 115(19), 1093810966 (2015), G. Bozzuto, A. Molinari, Liposomes as nanomedical devices. This approach bypasses the absorption step across the intestinal epithelium required after oral administration [28]. Sci. Approaches for co-delivery of different chemotherapeutics have been developed as a useful method for the treatment of cancer. Lu et al., Magnetic graphene oxide for dual targeted delivery of doxorubicin and photothermal therapy. 2008;25(9):20972116. However, most of the research is limited to in vivo and in vitro studies, and the number of approved nanodrugs has not much amplified over the years. Outlines the benefits and disadvantages of targeted therapy versus conventional chemotherapy. Nanotechnology for Treating Cancer: Pitfalls and Bridges on the Path to Ag nanoparticles have been used to deliver drugs that can elevate the therapeutic indices of the drug [148]. Ohno et al., Systemically injected exosomes targeted to EGFR deliver antitumor microRNA to breast cancer cells. 5(10), 2104721054 (2018), L. Zhang, Y. Li, C.Y. Acta Biomater.
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